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THE ORCHESTRA AND THE CONDUCTOR
The orchestra is led by the conductor (often called the maestro) who stands in the pit, in front of and below the stage. This conductor carries the full responsibility for the progress of the opera. He or she must blend and balance all the music, keep the proper tempi and regulate the dynamics (loudness and softness); each singer must be signaled when to begin. Video screens spotted around the stage and auditorium show a picture of the conductor, enabling singers to watch for cues without looking directly into the pit.
 Originally the conductor’s only job seems to have been to beat time. A Greek tablet from the eighth century B.C. reads: “The Giver of Time beats with his stave up and down…so that all might keep together.” Roman records tell of leaders who kept time by stamping their feet or tapping their toes. In those cases, the leader was one of the musicians who needed his hands to play his instrument. Gradually silent beating, using hand motions, replaced the audible beat. Formerly conductors might have used a roll of parchment or paper to indicate the tempo as shown in the picture of Carl Maria von Weber to the left. This was the beginning of the modern baton. During a performance of his Te Deum, the seventeenth-century composer, Lully, beat time on the floor with a staff. When it went through his foot, he developed gangrene and died.
In the early days the beat was uniform and steady but, by the seventeenth century, leaders started to vary tempo and expression, and the job of leader became more complex. In baroque instrumental ensembles the leader was, and often still is, one of the group, usually the harpsichordist, if there is one. Otherwise, the first violinist gives the cues.
The addition of singers made some sort of coordination with the players more important. The leadership role was shared by the first violinist, responsible for the instrumentalists, and the keyboard player, called the maestro, who led the singers. By Mozart’s time, the composer of an opera usually led the first performances of the new work, often from the keyboard. (This practice can be observed in the film Amadeus.) At other times, a “director of the orchestra” stood by the first violinist or by the continuo.
Orchestras were led by the first violinist, or concertmaster, well into the latter part of the nineteenth century, although baton beating, with its conventional movements, began to assume more importance. However, it wasn’t until the end of the century that conductors assumed their present-day role and were considered to be as important as the instrumental soloists. When the German composer, Wagner, gave up the concept of a fixed tempo entirely, eliminating metronome markings from his scores, conductors became interpreters as well as time-beaters.
The modern conductor, whether it be of a symphony or an opera, must first decide on his or her concept of a piece and how it should be interpreted by the players and singers. All of the forces should balance so that they blend, rather than one element dominating. However, if the orchestra drowns out a singer, it may be the composer’s intention. Richard Strauss was famous for this. The singer becomes just one of the voices that makes up the ensemble and not, as is usual, the dominant one.
The conductor must have a good ear and be aware of instruments which may be out of tune. While the conductor is still in control, the day of the autocrats such as Toscanini, who terrorized their orchestras, is past. The conductor is the leader but must also be a diplomat, respecting people, while achieving the results he or she desires. Still, one of the most important jobs of a conductor is to indicate tempo. Over the years, the gestures used to do this have become standardized so that any player can follow any conductor, at least in theory. For consistency, even most left-handed conductors use the baton in their right hand. The left hand is used for interpretation, such as dynamics, and often to give cues.
THE INSTRUMENTS
In opera, the orchestra enhances the drama by being an independent and equal partner with the singers. Though it is not visible to many in the audience, it is an extremely important contributor to the impact of the production. In fact, the symphony orchestra of today had its origins in the instrumental groups used to accompany early operas. It is made up of four main families of instruments plus a group of miscellaneous ones.
Musical instruments have been played since prehistoric times. Chinese flutes have been found which date to 8,000-9,000 years ago. There is hardly a civilization which did not have some sort of drum and some sort of flute. Music has probably been used to accompany performances as long as they have existed, certainly since the time of the Greeks. The first operas were usually accompanied by whatever instruments were available, and parts were not specifically written for the orchestra. Instead, the instruments doubled the voices, that is, they played the same notes. The composer Monteverdi (1567-1643) is often given credit for having founded the orchestra. By the time of Bach and Handel (1700s), there were still no prescribed parts for the instruments. The musicians were given an indication of chords to be played, called a figured bass, and they improvised from that. By the time of Mozart, most orchestras used a variety of instruments which had parts written especially for them. Many of the instruments in a modern orchestra started in opera orchestras. (While trombones were used for operas by the time of Mozart, they did not appear in the symphonic literature until the time of Beethoven (1800s)).
 I. THE STRINGS are usually played with a bow, although they are sometimes plucked with the fingers. The latter effect is called pizzicato. Usually notes are made by drawing the bow across one or more strings with one hand and placing the fingers on the strings with the other to create different notes. Although instruments with strings go back into prehistory, and there were bowed fiddles by the end of the eighth century, the modern violin dates from the early sixteenth century The number of strings has varied from as few as one to twenty or more; modern orchestra string instruments have four. Unlike some of the other instruments, the violin has remained relatively unchanged since the seventeenth century. The best violins in the world are thought to be those made in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries by the Amati, Guarnieri, and Stradivari families in Italy. Some of these priceless instruments are still in existence. Modern string instruments come in four sizes.
A. VIOLIN — The soprano of the strings, often divided in the orchestra into first and second violins which have different musical lines. Often the violins play the melody. The chief violinist is called the Concertmaster. The strings are sometimes made of ‘catgut’, actually sheep intestines, and the bow uses horsehair.
B. VIOLA—Larger than the violin but still held in the hand, the viola is the contralto of the strings. It has a dark and somber quality.
C. CELLO (short for violoncello) — Tenor and baritone voices. It is held between the knees and rests on the floor. Although it was not standard in orchestras until the time of Beethoven, earlier composers sometimes used it for continuo.
D. DOUBLE BASS (or contra bass) — The lowest of the strings, providing the harmonic foundation, and often used to add rhythm. It used to be larger than it is today, and the number of strings has varied through the years.
 II. THE WOODWINDS (Made of wood, except for the modern flute and the saxophone)
A. FLUTE — The soprano of the woodwind family. It comes in various sizes, the smallest being the piccolo (Italian for small), which has a penetrating, shrill sound and is often used for special effects. Most modern flutes are made of silver, although some are gold. Early ones were usually wooden, but flutes have been made from cane, wood, pottery, stone, metal, leather and bones. Flutes are among the most ancient of instruments and are found at many prehistoric sites. They were prominent in the music of the Indians of Latin America, and Cleopatra’s father played the flute! When the first metal flutes were introduced by players in Wagner’s orchestra (late nineteenth century), he ordered them out. “Those are not flutes, they are cannons!” Most early flutes were blown from the end. These were the ancestors of the recorder. Transverse flutes are blown from the side. King Henry VIII of England was a musician and owned seventy-six end-blown flutes and seventy-two side- blown flutes.
B. OBOE — A double-reed instrument with a tender, sad, plaintive sound, often used to carry the melody. Its ancestor, the shawm, was brought back to Europe from the Middle East in the twelfth century by the medieval crusaders. The oboe and its lower-pitched, close relative, the English horn, are the contralto woodwinds. The word “oboe” comes from the French hautbois or high wood. The present form of this instrument took shape at about the time of Bach (mid 1700s). Since it is difficult to change the pitch of the oboe, it is usual for the rest of the orchestra to tune to it. If you listen closely you can hear the orchestra tuning just before the conductor enters the pit.
C. CLARINET — A single-reed instrument with a tenor range. Since many composers thought it had a feminine sound, it often accompanies the prima donna. It was invented by J. C. Denner (1655-1707). As instruments go, it is a fairly recent arrival.
D. BASSOON — Means big bass’. It is related to the oboe, and is sometimes used for comic effects. The parent of both the oboe and the bassoon was the medieval shawm. The bassoon, which can actually sound lower than a tuba, is held in the hands when played; a still larger and lower version, the contrabassoon, must rest on the floor.
 III. THE BRASS
A. FRENCH HORN — Developed from the hunting horn, it has a very mellow, rich tone. If unraveled, it would measure over 11 feet. There are two forms, natural and valved. The valved is the more modern instrument, dating from about 1650. Originally the pitch could not be varied. A separate horn was needed for every change of key. The tube varied in length from about eight to eighteen feet. The replacement of the fixed mouthpiece with a socket into which tubes of various lengths, called crooks, could be inserted, made possible changes of pitch using only one instrument. The modern valve horn was invented about 1815.
B. TRUMPET — Has a heroic and martial sound and is extremely ancient, being found among the Chinese, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and even earlier. The Hebrews may have learned its use while they were captives in Egypt. According to the Bible, the sound of trumpets accompanied the fall of the walls of Jericho. Trumpets underwent the same evolution as the horns, from natural, to crook, to valve. For centuries it was the badge of royalty and could only be used in its service. As late as Stuart England (17th century), the unauthorized possession of a trumpet was a serious offense.
C. TROMBONE — Has a nine-foot slide to control its pitch. There are also valve trombones, but most players prefer to rely on the slides. Its name comes from the Italian word meaning “big trumpet” and that’s what it was at first. Legend dates the slide to ancient Greece, but it probably originated in Italy in the fourteenth century as the sackbut. Until the time of Mozart (who used it for opera), it was used mainly for church music. Wagner was especially fond of the trombone, and Beethoven was the first to use it in a symphony orchestra. The sound of the trombone is sometimes associated with hell, as the harp is associated with angels and heaven.
D. TUBA — A very deep bass. Used to give dark-colored effects and sometimes produce “oomph-pah-pah” sounds. The name encompasses a large class of instruments, including the special Wagner tubas and the sousaphones carried by marching bands.
IV. PERCUSSION instruments form a very large family. In addition to the instruments listed below, there are cymbals, tambourines, triangles, gongs, bells, and others.
A. TYMPANI or KETTLE DRUMS — These are generally made of copper and covered by animal skin which is struck with mallets to give various sounds. The tympani can be tuned to various pitches. Brought to Europe by the returning crusaders, they are now used in dramatic moments to give a grand, triumphant effect.
B. BASS DRUM — Can give the loudest as well as one of the quietest sounds in the orchestra. When a listener is close to one, the vibrations can be felt. It is often used for the sound of a cannon.
C. SNARE DRUM — Looks like a child’s drum. It marks rhythm and adds excitement and is played with a brush mallet.
D. GLOCKENSPIEL — Tuned metal bars giving small bell-like sound when played by small hammers held in the hand, such as Papageno’s magic bells in Die Zauberflöte.
E. XYLOPHONE — Has a series of wooden or metal bars. It is played with beaters having wood or rubber at the end. A MARIMBA is an instrument of African origin resembling a large xylophone.
F. CHIMES are sets of metal tubes of varying lengths and diameters which are struck to imitate bells.
 OTHER INSTRUMENTS
A. PIANO — Frequently used in modern opera, and considered a percussion instrument. It has 88 keys which are pressed to cause the mallets inside the piano to strike strings of varying lengths and thicknesses.
B. HARPSICHORD — A precursor of the piano, its strings are plucked rather than struck. It often accompanies recitatives in early operas such as Don Giovanni. Unlike the piano, it can have only one volume level.
C. HARP — An ancient instrument associated with angels and heaven. Much like the strings of the piano, the harp strings are of varying lengths and thicknesses to create different notes. These strings are plucked by the harpist’s fingers.
D. CELESTA — Looks like a tiny upright piano and has a bell-like tone.
E. SAXOPHONE — Invented in 1840, it is not one of the usual orchestral instruments. It is a metal wood’ instrument which uses a reed.
F. PAN PIPES consist of a set of end-blown flutes of different lengths bound together. This is a very ancient instrument, supposedly played by the god Pan. Papageno uses pan pipes in Die Zauberflöte.
G. ORGAN — Sometimes used in opera, for example in the church scene in Faust.
Machines for special effects, such as a wind machine for storms, automobile horns, synthesizers, etc.
In addition to the main orchestra, frequent use is made of a small group of musicians either onstage or backstage. Such a group is called a Banda.EAO
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